Network Working Group B. Zhang Internet-Draft Univ. of Arizona Intended status: Informational L. Zhang Expires: September 10, 2009 UCLA March 9, 2009 Evolution Towards Global Routing Scalability draft-zhang-evolution-01.txt Status of this Memo This Internet-Draft is submitted to IETF in full conformance with the provisions of BCP 78 and BCP 79. This document may contain material from IETF Documents or IETF Contributions published or made publicly available before November 10, 2008. The person(s) controlling the copyright in some of this material may not have granted the IETF Trust the right to allow modifications of such material outside the IETF Standards Process. 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The list of Internet-Draft Shadow Directories can be accessed at http://www.ietf.org/shadow.html. This Internet-Draft will expire on September 10, 2009. Copyright Notice Copyright (c) 2009 IETF Trust and the persons identified as the document authors. All rights reserved. Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 1] Internet-Draft Scaling BGP March 2009 This document is subject to BCP 78 and the IETF Trust's Legal Provisions Relating to IETF Documents in effect on the date of publication of this document (http://trustee.ietf.org/license-info). Please review these documents carefully, as they describe your rights and restrictions with respect to this document. Abstract Internet routing scalability has long been considered a serious problem. Over the years many efforts have been devoted to address this problem, however the IETF community as a whole is yet to achieve a shared understanding on what is the best way forward. We step up a level to re-examine the problem and the ongoing efforts, and conclude that, to effectively solve the routing scalability problem, we first need a clear understanding on how to introduce solutions to the Internet, which is a global scale deployed system. In this draft we sketch out our reasoning on the need for an evolutionary path towards scaling the global routing system, instead of attempting a new design. Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 2] Internet-Draft Scaling BGP March 2009 Table of Contents 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2. Difficulties in Deploying New Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3. An Evolutionary Path towards Scalable Routing . . . . . . . . 6 3.1. Stage One: Reducing FIB Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 3.2. Stage Two: Reducing Multi-AS Virtual Aggregation Overhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3.3. Stage Three: Reducing RIB Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 3.4. Stage Four: Insulating the Core from Edge Churns . . . . . 11 3.5. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 4. Evolution versus Incremental Deployability . . . . . . . . . . 12 5. Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 6. Security Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 7. Informative References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Authors' Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 3] Internet-Draft Scaling BGP March 2009 1. Introduction Internet routing scalability has been a long outstanding problem. Over the years many efforts, including our own, have been devoted to solve this problem. Our earlier effort led to the development of a new routing architecture design dubbed SIRA, A Secure and Scalable Internet Routing Architecture [SIRA]. Since the 2006 IAB Workshop on Internet Routing and Addressing [RFC4984], new IRTF/IETF efforts have been devoted to developing a new routing architecture that can provide effective control over the routing system growth. A number of proposals have been put on the table [RRG]. We worked out the specifics of SIRA and renamed it to APT [APT]. Some proposal even developed running code [LISP]. Yet no clear consensus has emerged in the community as which proposal(s) may have a good chance to be deployed, or what is the best way forward. Assuming the routing scalability problem is real and we can find a new design that is technically sound, why is it so difficult to agree on deploying a new design that can solve the problem? We put in the effort to understand fundamental roadblocks in rolling out APT, and came to a new understanding of the problem at hand: when facing a problem, as engineers we naturally tend to design a new system to solve the problem, hoping that the new design would be rolled out to replace the old problematic one. This kind of "solution by new design" approach can be effective in solving problems in small scale (e.g. one could easily replace an old computer with a new one), but it does not work for the deployed Internet. Instead, the Internet- scale systems need to resolve problems through an evolutionary path, not a revolutionary new design. In this draft we first discuss the major difficulties in rolling out a new design to solve the global routing scalability problem. These difficulties show that the Internet routing infrastructure needs an evolutionary path to move forward. We then sketch out a solution scenario towards resolving routing scalability problem. We also draw a distinction between an evolutionary process towards a final solution direction versus "an incrementally deployable new design". 2. Difficulties in Deploying New Solutions Two of the few fundamental properties of the Internet are its distributed governance and its diversity along multiple dimensions. The Internet is an interconnect of tens of thousands independently administrated networks, each with its own budget, planning, business models and operational practices. As a result, not everyone shares the same view as far as routing scalability is concerned. For example many customer networks and small regional providers do not Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 4] Internet-Draft Scaling BGP March 2009 carry the full BGP routing table internally; instead they only propagate internal routes inside their networks and use default routing to reach the rest of the Internet through one or a few exit points. On the other hand, large networks in general carry the full routing table internally for efficient data delivery to a large number of destinations. In this case, the former may not feel the pain of routing table growth but the latter may do. Even among the networks that do carry the full routing table inside, some (such as content providers) are able to upgrade their routing infrastructure every few years to keep up with the demand of ever growing BGP table; others may not be able to afford doing so. For example, we have learned from a few large ISPs that, although they may be able to upgrade their (relatively small number of) core routers with the latest technology that can handle a million or more routes, they could not afford upgrading all their edge routers which may count up to a thousand or more, even though some of them have been 10 or more years old. As a result, some networks may encounter the routing scalability problem years earlier than others, some may experience severe problems while others may not see the problem at all. Even within the same network, some routers can handle the increasing routing table size while others cannot. Several incidents have occurred recently that were caused by edge router RIB overflow. Although these incidents may be caused by other problems (e.g., route leak-out) that led to the inflation of the RIB size, they did show the fact that a large RIB size can easily push old edge routers to fall off the cliff. Therefore, although finding a way to put routing table size under control may be viewed as needed in the long run, different network can have different degrees of incentive to solve the problem, and some may not see a need to take any action towards fixing the problem for the time being. Yet another important issue is network economics. A new solution design usually calls for software upgrade or even new hardware, both require additional investment as well as new expertise in managing and troubleshooting the new technology. The affordability associated with deploying a new design varies greatly among different networks. Even if a network may suffer pain from the growing routing table size, it still may not be able to deploy a new solution if the cost is considered prohibitively high. Instead, people tend to look for simple twists of the existing systems that can provide effective release from the RIB/FIB growth pressure. One such simple patch was presented at October 2008 NANOG meeting [NANOG44] . Each network makes its own business decision on whether to deploy a new design, based on its evaluation of the severity of the problem Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 5] Internet-Draft Scaling BGP March 2009 and its affordability of deploying the solution. Given the scale and diversity of the Internet, it is certain that the buy-in of any new solution will not be harmonious. Even for those networks that require a solution to handle routing scalability, the deployment will likely be a gradual process with several stages. Furthermore, the day for *all* the networks to deploy a new solution may take forever to come. To summarize: we see that o Different parties have different perceptions regarding the routing scalability problem due to different operational practices; some are yet to be convinced that the routing scalability problem is serious [BGP2008]. o For networks where the routing scalability problem shows up, there can be different severity at different routers. o Networks that experience routing scalability problems are also likely to have affordability concerns for new solutions. o If any new solution gets rolled out, it is certain to start from one or a few parties first, and may or may not ever reach the entire Internet. The above argues that we should attack the routing scalability problem with an evolutionary approach. By evolution we mean that the solution should enable the routing table size reduction at only those routers whose capacity fall behind the the FIB or RIB growth, and that the solution should be built on top of the existing system. Building a solution on top of the existing system makes it much cheaper and easier to roll out, and make it likely to work transparently with the rest part that does not make the changes or does not make the change at the same time. 3. An Evolutionary Path towards Scalable Routing Based on our current understanding of the problem and the solution space, in this section we sketch out an evolutionary path towards scalable Inter-domain routing. As the Internet continues to evolve over time, it is likely that our understanding will also evolve, thus the path we sketched out in this draft may change. The main point we want to make is not any particular evolutionary path, but rather to show evidences that such an evolutionary path both exists and is feasible, and that efforts towards solving an existing problem should aim for an evolutionary path towards architectural change, rather than attempting a brand new design. At this time we can see several stages in evolving today's BGP routing system towards a controllable growth of the core routing Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 6] Internet-Draft Scaling BGP March 2009 table size. We divide this evolution into stages by identifying potentially most severe pain at the time that seems warranting a fix, and we identify a fix that has a reasonable cost, can be carried out by individual network, and can be built on top of the existing operations, so that it does not break any other parts of the routing system. Note that any such simple fix necessarily has its limitations. As the fix gets widely deployed, its limitations are likely to become more pronounced, and can become the next problem to address, which will lead to the next stage of evolving the system forward. 3.1. Stage One: Reducing FIB Size Over the last month or so we conducted a quick survey on routing scalability among a small group of people with operational expertise. The results identified the fast growing FIB size as the highest priority concern in routing scalability; this is also consistent with the results from the IAB 2006 workshop on Routing and Addressing [RFC4984]. Therefore, we consider reducing FIB size is the first issue to resolve towards scalable BGP routing, and we believe there is no major disagreement regarding this problem statement. The proposed solutions for resolving this FIB scalability problem, on the other hand, differ significantly. Most of the proposals presented to the IRTF Routing Research Group (including our own, APT) took on the direction of a basic architectural change. Not only is an architectural change likely to take long to go through the IETF standardization process as well as costly to roll out, but also a more fundamental problem is that it is difficult to make it both bring immediate benefits to first movers and be compatible with today's deployed base. We will discuss more about the issues in introducing a new design in Section 4. A very different solution, Virtual Aggregation (VA), has been proposed by Francis and Xu [Virtual_Aggregation]. Briefly, Virtual Aggregation works as follows. An ISP can reduce its routers FIB size by configuring a router to announce a short prefix, say 1.0.0.0/8, in place of multiple longer prefixes that fall within 1.0.0.0/8, into its own network. This router is called an Aggregation Point Router (APR) and the short prefix is called a virtual prefix. The APR maintains FIB entries for all the longer prefixes (e.g., 1.1.0.0/16) covered by the virtual prefix, while other routers in the network only need to maintain one FIB entry for the virtual prefix 1.0.0.0/8. When a router receives a packet to be forwarded to 1.1.0.0/16, its FIB will direct the packet to the APR, which checks its FIB entry and finds 1.1.0.0./16, then tunnels the packet to the egress router for the actual prefix 1.1.0.0./16. Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 7] Internet-Draft Scaling BGP March 2009 We view Virtual Aggregation as an evolutionary step towards scaling the FIB size, because it can be done by an individual ISP to effectively shrink the FIB size for some of its routers, and the deployment only requires configuration changes to start with. It has no impact on the routing operation of any other networks. At the same time, since all packets destined to the prefixes that have been aggregated in a virtual prefix will go through the APR, this step of evolutionary fix introduces both additional delivery delay (i.e., path stretch) and encapsulation cost. Furthermore, the APR can also become a concentration point of traffic. Several operational steps can be applied to mitigate these problems. o Do not aggregate prefixes that carry heavy volumes of traffic to prevent the traffic from path stretch or contributing to the APR load. o One can adjust APR load by adjusting the number of virtual prefixes, using more APRs to share the load. o One may be able to configure an APR at the POP where adjacent prefixes are announced into one's network; properly positioning APRs can minimize the path stretch. o Finally, if an APR receives heaving volume of traffic from certain ingress routers, the APR can send to those ingress routers the FIB entries that their traffic are destined to, so that these ingress routers cache the FIB entries and encapsulate the packets towards the egress routers. This will reduce both the APR load and eliminate the path stretch for those cached FIB entries. This last technique makes an APR perform more or less in the same way as a Default Mapper (DM) in our APT design [APT], however with one fundamental difference. Deploying an APR does not require any new protocol or a new functional box (the DM node) that the APT deployment would require. Instead, an operator can simply configure a router to be an APR, without needing any changes to other routers that benefit from reduced FIB size. Only when the APR rollout becomes successful and the APR load becomes an issue, then the operator may consider additional changes to make the ingress routers handle caching. We believe that the deployment of Virtual Aggregation (VA) can effectively reduce the FIB size at some routers. Indeed, Virtual Aggregation is simply a poor man's map-encap within one AS. The APR holds the mapping table from the virtual prefix to all the egress routers where the specific prefixes can be reached, this mapping information is directly derived from BGP routing updates. The APR then encapsulates packets to those egress routers. How many ISPs would deploy VA? How much time can VA buy us in Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 8] Internet-Draft Scaling BGP March 2009 curtailing the FIB size growth? It seems only time can tell. But if we look ahead one step, as the Internet continues to grow, and as IPv6 deployment starts rolling out, more networks may face the FIB size problem and adopt Virtual Aggregation as a solution. When two or more adjacent ASes all deploy Virtual Aggregation, packets that traverse these ASes will experience the cumulated path stretches and encapsulation/decapsulation cost of all the ASes along their paths. The need to resolve this new problem (of cumulated path stretch and cost) can naturally lead to the next step of evolution towards better routing scalability. 3.2. Stage Two: Reducing Multi-AS Virtual Aggregation Overhead Assuming the AS path a packet takes is W-X-Y-Z, and both X and Y have deployed Virtual Aggregation. Then we would like to see that X's APR encapsulates the packet directly to the egress router of Y instead of X's own. This will minimize the path stretch and the packet will only need to be encapsulated/decapsulated once instead of two times. To enable such inter-AS Virtual Aggregation, X's APR needs to know Y's egress router for a given destination prefix P. This mapping information (i.e., mapping from a destination prefix P to an egress router) needs to be propagated from Y to X. The least resistant approach is to piggyback such mapping information on the existing BGP announcement for prefix P. Francis and Xu have proposed such an extension to BGP, which carries the mapping information in a new BGP attribute [InterDomainVA]; the APT team was also looking into more or less the same design when the above mentioned draft was published. We argue that this second step is feasible by the following reasoning. First, this second step towards better routing scalability will take place only after at least two networks (X and Y) have deployed VA and benefited from it. Therefore we reason that they would not want to move away from VA but would like to minimize VA's cost in path stretch and encapsulation, to improve the traffic performance for their customers. Second, the required BGP implementation changes are backward compatible, meaning that networks that have deployed this solution and networks that have not deployed this solution can still communicate without problems. As a side note we would also like to point out that this virtual aggregation mapping exchange *closely* resembles the early design of APT mapping information exchange between Default Mappers that the APT team proposed earlier [APT-00]. The content of the mapping exchanges is somewhat different, but a more fundamental difference between what we discussed in this section and that early APT design back in 2007 is the following: here we sketch out an evolutionary path forward, which does not require, as a starting point, any protocol change or Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 9] Internet-Draft Scaling BGP March 2009 information exchange across multiple ASes that the early APT design does. Rather, the need for mapping exchange arises only after the FIB size reduction has been achieved, and the mapping exchange can start with two adjacent ASes after each of them has deployed Virtual Aggregation. 3.3. Stage Three: Reducing RIB Size Piggybacking the virtual aggregation mapping information on BGP can work well when the mapping table is small, i.e., the number of networks that have adopted Virtual Aggregation is small. When more networks have adopted Virtual Aggregation, the mapping table will grow large, which may make it no longer feasible to piggyback all the mapping information on the existing BGP sessions. The main problem, as we can perceive now, would be the RIB size growth: A BGP router will receive the same mapping information from multiple neighboring BGP routers, and store all of it in its Adj-RIBs-IN and Local-RIB. Thus every BGP router will have to store multiple copies of the mapping table. This issue was pointed out back in 2007 when the early APT design was discussed, and one suggestion to get around the problem is to use separate BGP sessions for mapping information exchange. Another factor is that, after a network X has deployed virtual aggregation for a while and has gained sufficient operational experience, it may become clear that many of its routers no longer need to keep the full RIB table. If an internal router has small FIB and relies on APRs to route packets towards all other destinations, it does not need a full RIB to build its FIB. Theoretically speaking, all border routers of X that connect to legacy networks (i.e., those that have not deployed VA) would still need to keep the full RIB in order to make BGP announcements into the legacy neighbors. However in practice, only the customer-facing border routers need a full RIB. The other border routers, those that face either peer or provider legacy neighbors, only need to announce X's own customer prefixes to them. Careful engineering analysis and configuration can eliminate the need for many routers to keep full RIB; among those which keep the full RIB will be the ones serving as APRs. As we perceive what may happen further into the future, the picture becomes more blurry, hence what we try to forecast here may or may not bear great accuracy for what may happen in the future. Having said that, we perceive that the combination of the aforementioned two factors (relieving regular routers from storing mapping table and full RIB table) would lead to moving the mapping dissemination from the regular BGP instance (which is used for inter-domain routing) to a separate BGP instance only between APRs via multi-hop BGP sessions. Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 10] Internet-Draft Scaling BGP March 2009 Though the protocol is still BGP for the ease of deployment, APRs would run a different session (e.g., on a different TCP port) for mapping dissemination purpose only. Other regular routers run regular BGP instance for inter-domain routing purpose, but are relieved from bearing the overhead of storing and propagating mapping information or the full RIB table. When the RIB size for most routers (other than the APRs) is reduced, what are the prefixes that get dropped out of the RIB? Since APRs (or ingress routers, if they are upgraded to handle caching) must encapsulate packets towards egress routers that connect to the more specific prefixes that have been aggregated out, the ASes must exchange the reachability information about their own topologies, so that routers in different ASes know how to reach each other. The prefixes that got aggregated out of the core routing system would be those that belong to the edge ASes. As such, Virtual Aggregation plus mapping exchange effectively drives the overall routing system towards the separation of edge site prefixes from the transit network routing, a scalable routing architecture that the APT design has depicted. Again we cannot help but to point out the close resemblance between the system we depicted above and the original APT design. On the surface, it seems the only noticeable difference is just the names: here we have APRs instead of APT's DMs that use BGP to exchange mapping information. But once again we must not forget an essential difference: we reach this perceived stage-three towards scalable routing through an evolutionary path, instead of requiring installation of a new design from day one. 3.4. Stage Four: Insulating the Core from Edge Churns In the current Internet, flaps of customer prefixes are propagated to the rest of the Internet in the form of BGP updates, i.e., routing churns. With virtual aggregation and mapping exchange, these churns would be reflected as mapping updates, which are disseminated through the interconnects of APRs. We perceive this as a benefit, as other non-APR routers can be sheltered from updates due to edge instabilities. Our earlier measurement and analysis study [TopologyGrowth] has shown that most Internet topology growth comes from the addition of customer edge ASes. It is conceivable that as the number of customer sites continues to increase, the amount of churns may become too much to handle in a cost-effective way. A solution to this edge churn problem is to insulate the mapping dissemination system from the edge dynamics. Based on the current BGP data, our estimation shows that, if we could remove BGP updates induced by customer prefix Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 11] Internet-Draft Scaling BGP March 2009 instabilities, we would have reduced the total amount of routing churns by an order of magnitude [eFIT_IPv6]. Ideally, when the link connecting a customer site to a provider fails, the mapping system should propagate this failure information only when the failure has a long duration, so that every network will be aware of this failure and choose an alternative path to reach the affected customer site. But long lasting failures probably do not happen frequently. Short failures, which are frequent, should not be propagated through the mapping system. Instead, they should be handled by other means. For example, in the APT design, the failure handling actions are data- driven, i.e., a link failure to an edge network is not reported unless and until there are data packets that are heading towards the failed link. We are actively working on an evolutionary solution that can provide equivalent data-driven handling of edge failures as APT does. 3.5. Summary If we can imagine a picture where all the networks in the Internet had deployed all the stages of routing scalability improvement we sketched above, then the Internet routing system would have converged to a new map-encap routing architecture like APT. Then what is the fundamental difference between the evolutionary path described in this draft and the deployment of APT? First, we clarify that the goal is to reduce the FIB/RIB table size; we emphasize that the separation of edges and core (or EIDs from Locators as in LISP's terminology) itself should *not* be a required starting point. Second, we show that the evolutionary path, which goes through several stages with clearly identified benefits and minimal cost at each stage, can naturally converge towards the separation as a result! We make two points from this last statements: (1) This could also be used as an evidence that the evolution can indeed lead to architectural changes, as it moves the system towards the same point that a new design points to. (2) We used the phrase "converge towards separation", rather than "achieving separation", because we believe that, even after a long time and many networks have adopted the solution, it is most likely that some networks will remain at various early stages of the evolution, some even may not have made a single change. This is the nature of the Internet, due to its two properties that we mentioned at the beginning: its distributed governance, and its diversity along economical and operational practice dimensions. 4. Evolution versus Incremental Deployability So far our discussion has focused on a possible evolution of the Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 12] Internet-Draft Scaling BGP March 2009 routing system towards a scalable design. In this section we would like to broaden the discussion to a more general question: Many new designs have plans for incremental deployment. So what is the difference between incremental deployability and an evolutionary path? We believe that all new designs have an implicit assumption that the entire system would eventually move to the new design. No matter how much design effort one puts into the incremental deployment step of a new design, the design itself does not start with the assumption that not all parts of the system would adopt it. Therefore, it is likely the case that the assumed benefit of the new design would be achieved only after a majority, if not the whole, of the system has deployed the design, and that the cost of incremental deployment would be minimized only then as well. The incremental deployment machinery is simply to glue together the part that has made the change and the rest that has not, to make the system function together at the intermediate, and hopefully transient, stage, as the system would be in a sub-optimal state until the new design gets fully deployed. In contrast, gradual evolutions in a large system depict a picture where changes may happen here and there as needed, but there is no expectation that the system as a whole must make a change. A typical example is multicast deployment. The main benefit of deploying IP multicast comes from the scalability and performance improvement for *large-scale* group communication applications, however, such applications will not emerge until the majority of the Internet has rolled out the deployment since the applications require IP multicast. Therefore, although tunneling to MBone provides a technical machinery to connect deployed sites, first movers do not see enough benefits to justify such a significant change to the network. On the other hand, overlay multicast has been growing fast. It does not require changes to the network and can co-exist with any existing network protocol or application. Its deployment cost is as small as installing a software by individual users. And more importantly, users who run it see the immediate benefits while users who do not run it are not affected. The evolutionary approach recognizes that changes to the Internet can only be a gradual process with multiple stages. At each stage, networks that make the changes must have the incentive to do so. More specifically, 1. Each stage focuses on an immediate problem with enough economic impact that warrants a fix. 2. Each stage offers a solution that solves the problem, does not break other parts of the Internet, and can be deployed with a reasonable cost considering the specific problem. Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 13] Internet-Draft Scaling BGP March 2009 3. As the solution is being deployed by more and more networks, its downside may become more pronounced and eventually requires a fix, which leads to the next stage of the evolution. Like many others, we too hoped that our new design, APT, could be eventually deployed everywhere to put the routing scalability under control. We gradually realized that it is infeasible to attempt to roll out a new routing framework (i.e. a clean separation of edge prefixes from the core routing system) in a vast distributed system. The Internet Protocol, IP, was designed to accommodate heterogeneity at subnet technology level. Today, the intrinsic heterogeneity and distributed governance in the Internet needs the accommodation of heterogeneity at the network control plane. Solutions to routing scalability should be control knobs on top of the deployed base to those parties who need them, and should not be an expectation that the entire Internet would (eventually) move to a new design. An evolutionary process accommodates differences at different parts of the system, as new functions are built on top of, hence can peacefully co-exist with, the deployed base. On the other hand, a revolutionary new design focuses on the final outcome once the replacement of the old by the new is done throughout the Internet. The latter would offer a clean picture of the overall system, assuming the final stage could be reached. The former, on the other hand, would present a much messier or more complex picture, both because we twist old protocols for new functions and because different parts may do different things. As pointed out by Haldane over 80 years ago [SizeImpact], in biological systems, "The higher animals are not larger than the lower because they are more complicated. They are more complicated because they are larger." We believe the same is true for man-built systems: as the system grows large in size, it is necessarily becoming more complicated. 5. Acknowledgements The authors are part of the APT team. The APT project is funded by US National Science Foundation. The survey mentioned in Section 3.1 was conducted by Dan Jen. 6. Security Considerations This draft is a discussion on the Internet's necessity to follow an evolutionary path towards the future. There is no direct impact on the Internet security. Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 14] Internet-Draft Scaling BGP March 2009 7. Informative References [APT] Jen, D., Meisel, M., Massey, D., Wang, L., Zhang, B., and L. Zhang, "APT: A Practical Transit Mapping Service", draft-jen-apt-01, November 2007. [APT-00] Jen, D., Meisel, M., Massey, D., Wang, L., Zhang, B., and L. Zhang, "APT: A Practical Transit Mapping Service", draft-jen-apt-00, July 2007. [BGP2008] Huston, G., "BGP IN 2008 - what's changed", APRICOT presentation, 2009, . [InterDomainVA] Xu, X. and P. Francis, "Simple Tunnel Endpoint Signaling in BGP", draft-xu-tunnel-00, February 2009. [LISP] Farinacci, D., Fuller, V., Meyer, D., and D. Lewis, "Location/ID Separation Protocol (LISP)", draft-farinacci-lisp-12, March 2009. [NANOG44] Roisman, D., "Extending the Life of Layer 3 Switches in a 256k+ Route World", NANOG44, October 2008, . [RFC4984] Meyer, D., Zhang, L., and K. Fall, "Report from the IAB Workshop on Routing and Addressing", RFC 4984, September 2007. [RRG] RRG, "IRTF Routing Research Group Home Page", . [SIRA] Zhang, B. and et. al., "A Secure and Scalable Internet Routing Architecture", ACM SIGCOMM 2006 Poster Session. [SizeImpact] Haldane, "On Being the Right Size", 1928, . [TopologyGrowth] Oliveira, R., Zhang, B., and L. Zhang, "Observing the Evolution of Internet AS Topology", ACM SIGCOMM 2007. [Virtual_Aggregation] Francis, P., Xu, X., and H. Billani, "FIB Suppression with Virtual Aggregation and Default Routes", Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 15] Internet-Draft Scaling BGP March 2009 draft-francis-idr-intra-va-01, September 2008. [eFIT_IPv6] Massey, D. and et. al., "A Scalable Routing System Design for Future Internet", ACM SIGCOMM 2007 IPv6 Workshop. Authors' Addresses Beichuan Zhang Univ. of Arizona Email: bzhang@arizona.edu Lixia Zhang UCLA Email: lixia@cs.ucla.edu Zhang & Zhang Expires September 10, 2009 [Page 16]